From Curriculum Goals to Classroom Practice: Uncovering the Critical Thinking Gap in Portuguese Language Education
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.57125/FED.2025.09.25.11Keywords:
Portuguese language teaching, critical thinking, cognitive complexity, learning outcomes, pedagogical practicesAbstract
This study examines the relationship between Portuguese language teaching practices and the development of critical thinking (CT) in secondary schools across Angola, Brazil, and Portugal. Using a qualitative, cross-cultural design, the research involved 151 Grade 12 students (86 female, 65 male) and six Portuguese language teachers. Data were collected through annual lesson plans, a validated Critical Thinking Test (CTT), and a focus group with teachers and coordinators. Descriptive and inferential statistics complemented content analysis of lesson plans and discussions. Findings reveal a striking gap between curricular expectations and students’ actual CT performance. On the CTT, the average student score was 10.6 out of 25 (SD = 5.6), with considerable cross-national variation: Portugal obtained the highest mean (15.3), followed by Angola (8.8) and Brazil (7.7). Across all contexts, students scored highest on analysis and interpretation, while evaluation, synthesis, and creativity-related tasks yielded the lowest results. These patterns mirror the cognitive complexity of classroom activities identified in lesson plans, where simpler interpretative and analytical tasks predominated. The study highlights a strong connection between the level of cognitive complexity embedded in teaching activities and students’ performance in CT. Results suggest that explicit, intentional, and progressively demanding tasks — particularly those involving evaluation and synthesis — are crucial for improving CT outcomes. Teachers generally perceive CT as an overarching skill developed indirectly through literature, reading, and writing activities, rather than as a structured competence requiring targeted instruction. The novelty of this research lies in its comparative perspective across three Lusophone countries, providing rare cross-cultural evidence on how language teaching can either foster or hinder CT. Practically, the findings underscore the need for more deliberate integration of higher-order cognitive demands in classroom practice, bridging the persistent gap between curricular aims and student learning outcomes.
References
Altay, B. (2013). İngilizce öğrenme sürecinde bilişsel farkındalık, dil öğrenme stratejileri, eleştirel düşünme ve öz-düzenleme becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [Examination of the relationship between cognitive awareness, language learning strategies, critical thinking, and self-regulation skills in the process of learning English] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Adnan Menderes University, Institute of Social Sciences.
Bağ, H. K., & Gürsoy, E. (2021). The effect of critical thinking embedded English course design on the improvement of critical thinking skills of secondary school learners. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, Article 100910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100910
Bagheri, F. (2015). The relationship between critical thinking and language learning strategies of EFL learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(5), 969–975. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0605.08
Bardin, L. (1977). Análise de conteúdo [Content analysis]. Edições 70.
Bronckart, J.-P. (2006). Les conditions de construction des connaissances humaines [The conditions for the construction of human knowledge]. In M. Carton & J.-B. Mayer (Eds.), La société des savoirs: Trompe-l’œil ou perspectives? (pp. 27–48). L’Harmattan. https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:37556
Bronckart, J.-P. (2007). Desarrollo del lenguaje y didáctica de las lenguas [Language development and didactics of languages]. Miño y Dávila.
Brotherton, P. (2011). Critical thinking: A top skill for future leaders. T+D, 65(11), 24. https://www.td.org/magazines/td-magazine/critical-thinking-a-top-skill-for-future-leaders
Bruggink, M., Swart, N., van der Lee, A., & Segers, E. (2022). Theories of reading comprehension: The current state of affairs on reading comprehension research. In M. Bruggink, N. Swart, A. van der Lee, & E. Segers (Eds.), Putting PIRLS to use in classrooms across the globe. IEA Research for Educators (Vol. 1). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95266-2_2
Butler, H. A. (2012). Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment predicts real-world outcomes of critical thinking. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(5), 721–729. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2831
Canagarajah, S. (2002). Multilingual writers and the academic community: Towards a critical relationship. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1475-1585(02)00007-3
Canagarajah, S. (2005). Critical pedagogy in L2 learning and teaching. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 931–949). Taylor & Francis.
Çelik, S., Yılmaz, F., Karataş, F., Al, B., & Karakaş, N. S. (2015). Critical thinking disposition of nursing students and affecting factors. Journal of Health Science and Profession, 2(1), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.17681/hsp.27211
Clark, A. (2016). Surfing uncertainty: Prediction, action and the embodied mind. Oxford University Press.
Clark, H. H. (1996). Using language. Cambridge University Press.
Clifford, J. S., Boufal, M. M., & Kurtz, J. E. (2004). Personality traits and critical thinking skills in college students: Empirical tests of a two-factor theory. Assessment, 11(2), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104263250
Dantas, L. A., Galego, C., Koppe, B., Almeida, E. S., Neves Gonçalves, M., & Brás, J. (2024). Mother tongue teaching and skills development: An analysis of secondary education curricula in European countries and Brazil. In Y. Waghid & A. Alasfour (Eds.), Values education and beyond: Implications for emotional learning. WCCES–Brill Book Series.
Demir, E. (2022). An examination of high school students’ critical thinking dispositions and analytical thinking skills. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6(4), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202217357
Ekinci, Ö., & Aybek, B. (2010). Analysis of the empathy and the critical thinking disposition of the teacher candidates. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 9(2), 816–827.
Evans, N., & Levinson, S. C. (2009). The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(5), 448–494. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999094X
Facione, P. A. (2020). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts (pp. 1–18). Insight Assessment.
Flores, K. L., Matkin, G. S., Burbach, M. E., Quinn, C. E., & Harding, H. (2012). Deficient critical thinking skills among college graduates: Implications for leadership. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(2), 212–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00672.x
Floyd, C. B. (2011). Critical thinking in a second language. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(3), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.501076
Fung, D. (2017). The pedagogical impacts on students’ development of critical thinking dispositions: Experience from Hong Kong secondary schools. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 26, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.10.006
Gökkuş, İ., & Delican, B. (2016). Pre-service classroom teachers’ critical thinking tendencies and attitudes towards reading habit. Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education, 5(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.321061
Hagoort, P. (2023). The language marker hypothesis. Cognition, 230, 105252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105252
Halpern, D. F. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (5th ed.). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315885278
Hoffmann, C. (2020). Helmholtz, Hermann von: Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. In H. L. Arnold (Ed.), Kindlers Literatur Lexikon (KLL). J. B. Metzler. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05728-0_10193-1
Jackendoff, R. (2007). Language, consciousness, culture. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262101184.001.0001
Koçak, B., Kurtlu, Y., Ulaş, H., & Epçaçan, C. (2015). Examining the elementary class teachers’ critical thinking levels and their attitudes towards reading. Ekev Akademi Journal, 61, 211–228.
Liang, W., & Fung, D. (2021). Fostering critical thinking in English-as-a-second-language classrooms: Challenges and opportunities. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 100769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100769
Liaw, M. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. English Teaching & Learning, 31(2), 45–87.
Lopes, J., Silva, H., & Morais, E. (2018). Test de pensamiento crítico para estudiantes de enseñanza básica y secundaria [Critical thinking test for elementary and secondary students]. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 5(2), 82–91. (DOI не вказано у надійному форматі.)
Luk, J., & Lin, A. (2015). Voices without words: Doing critical literate talk in English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 49(1), 67–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.161
Lun, V. M.-C., Fischer, R., & Ward, C. (2010). Exploring cultural differences in critical thinking: Is it about my thinking style or the language I speak? Learning and Individual Differences, 20(6), 604–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.07.001
Moeiniasl, H., Taylor, L., Braga, M., Manchanda, T., Huggon, W., & Graham, J. (2022). Assessing the critical thinking skills of English language learners in a first-year psychology course. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 43, Article 101004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101004
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013). Education at a glance 2013: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2013-en
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018). The future of education and skills 2030: The future we want. OECD Publishing.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en
Paton, M. (2005). Is critical analysis foreign to Chinese students? In E. Manalo & G. Wong-Toi (Eds.), Communication skills in university education: The international dimension (pp. 1–11). Pearson Education.
Peng, J. (2014). Willingness to communicate in the Chinese EFL university classrooms: An ecological perspective. Multilingual Matters.
Reid, S., & Chin, P. (2021). Assessing critical thinking in L2: An exploratory study. Shiken, 21(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTSIG.TEVAL25.1-2
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2017). Education for sustainable development goals: Learning objectives. https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/education-sustainable-development-goals-learning-objectives
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000
Weng, W. (2015). Eight skills in future work. Education, 135(4), 419–422.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
